II. Elementary Principle of Composition (b)
18. 避免一连串的松散句式。
松散的句式指的是由两个分句组成的句子，其中第二分句被一个连词或是关系代词所引导。句式过于紧凑且呈圆周性*将使得文字过分正式，所以，偶尔插入一些松散句式可以在一定程度上舒缓读者。因此，松散句式是随意而自然的写作方式。但滥用松散句式也是一种危险。
一个没有经验的作者有时会用松散句式堆积起整个段落，使用诸如 and、but 连词或者较少用的 who、which、when、where 和 while 等非限制性定语从句关系代词。比如下面这段糟糕的文字：
The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank, while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation. The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an equally attractive program will be presented.
除了空洞的陈词外，上面的这个段落在句式上也是糟糕的。试比较下面的一段，摘自 E. M. Forster 的《Two Cheers for Democracy》的“What I believe”一章：
I believe in aristocracy, though – if that is the right word, and if a democrat may use it. Not an aristocracy of power, based upon rank and influence, but an aristocracy of the sensitive, the considerate and plucky. Its members are to be found in all nations and classes, and all through the ages, and there is a secret understanding between them when they meet. They represent the true human tradition, the one permanent victory of our queer race over cruelty and chaos. Thousands of them perish in obscurity, a few are great names. They are sensitive for others as well as for themselves, they are considerate without being fussy, their pluck is not swankiness but the power to endure, and they can take a joke.
修改由松散句式组成的段落的方式是将其中大部分句子替换为简单句、由用分号连接的两个分句组成的句子、由两个分句组成的圆周句、或是由三个分句组成的松散句或圆周句——不管是什么，它们都应当表达出思维的逻辑关系。
19. 用类似的句式表达并列的思想。
内容和功能类似的思想在外在表达方式上也应当类似，比如大家最熟悉的八福：
Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Blessed are they that mourn: for they shall be comforted.
Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth.
Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for they shall be filled.
当不断地重复强调一件事情时，作者可能需要变换句式。否则，作者应该保持类似的句式。同样的道理，冠词和介词的使用也要一致，要么只用于第一个名词，要么就每个名词都用：
in spring, summer, or winter (in spring, in summer, or in winter)
一些关联词（both、and；not、but；not only、but also；either、or；first、second、third；等等）后面的句子必须保持相同的语法结构：
It was both a long ceremony and very tedious.
The ceremony was both long and tedious.
20. 把相关的词放在一起。
句子中的词的位置相当重要。把相关的词放在一起，不相关的词分开来。
He noticed a large stain in the rug that was right in the center.
He noticed a large stain right in the center of the rug.
You can call your mother in London and tell her all about George's taking you out to dinner for just two dollars.
For just two dollars you can call your mother in London and tell her all about George's taking you out to dinner.
New York's first commercial human-sperm bank opened Friday with semen samples from eighteen men frozen in a stainless steel tank.
New York's first commercial human-sperm bank opened Friday when semen samples were taken from eighteen men. The samples were then frozen and stored in a stainless steel tank.
句子的主语和动词不能被可以移到句首的词组或从句分开：
Toni Morrison, in Beloved, writes about characters who have escaped from slavery but are haunted by its heritage.
In Beloved, Toni Morrison writes about characters who have escaped from slavery but are haunted by its heritage.
A dog, if you fail to discipline him, becomes a household pest.
Unless disciplined, a dog becomes a household pest.
在主语和动词间插入内容会影响句子的通顺性。但有时在圆周句中需要使用插入来制造停顿。（见规则 22 下的例句。）
大部分情况下，关系代词应当紧随其先行词：
There was a stir in the audience that suggested disapproval.
A stir that suggested disapproval swept the audience.
He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain, which were published in Harper's Magazine.
He published three articles in Harper's Magazine about his adventures in Spain.
先行词的结构有时比较复杂，把关系代词置于最后可能会造成歧义，如：“A proposal to amend the Sherman Act, which has been variously judged…”这时需要把关系从句前移：“A proposal, which has been variously judged, to amend Sherman Act…”另外，同位语可以插于先行词和关系代词之间，因为不可能造成歧义。
修饰词应当尽可能地紧随被修饰词出现。如果同一个词被多个短语修饰，那么必须慎重排置这些短语的位置，以免造成歧义：
She only found two mistakes.
She found only two mistakes.
The director said he hoped all members would give generously to the Fund at a meeting of the committee yesterday.
At a meeting of the committee yesterday, the director said he hoped all members would give generously to the Fund.
Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture on Tuesday evening in Bailey Hall, to which the public is invited on "My Experiences in Mesopotamia" at 8:00 p.m.
On Tuesday evening at eight, Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture in Bailey Hall on "My Experiences in Mesopotamia." The public is invited.
21. 在概括文字中保持同一个时态。
在概括戏剧的动作的时候使用现在时。在概括诗歌、故事、或小说等的时候，也要使用现在时，但若你觉得使用过去时更自然的话也可以。如果使用现在时，那么之前发生的动作就要使用完成时；如果使用过去时则是过去完成时。
Chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, Juliet has been compelled to drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthazar informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the non-delivery of the letter.
不过不管在概括中使用什么时态，在间接引用的对话中总是使用过去时。
The Friar confesses that it was he who married them.
在转述他人的文字或思想的时候（如概括一篇论文或是演讲），不要滥用“he said”、“she stated”、“the speaker added”、“the speaker then went on to say”、“the author also thinks”等等。在开篇时就应当一次性指明下面的文字是一段概括，之后就不要在这上面浪费笔墨了。
在笔记、报纸或是文学阅读札记中，概括是不可或缺的。但当你在对文学的进行评论或阐释性的文字创作中就应尽量少用概括，只需一两句话点到为止，而将主要精力放在有理有据的论述上。
22. 要强调的内容放在句末。
读者最容易关注到的内容一般都在句子的末尾。
Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways.
Since that time, humanity has advanced in many ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.
This steel is principally used for making razors, because of its hardness.
Because of its hardness, this steel is used principally for making razors.
圆周句中容易引起读者注意的也是出于句末的主句：
Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to the Indies to offset the achievement of Portuguese discoverers, lighted on America.
With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourself unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful prosecution of this war.
另外一个容易引起读者注意的位置是句首。置于句首的只要不是主语都会引起读者的注意：
Deceit or treachery she could never forgive.
Vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first sight, like works of nature.
Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding stream.
一句话中最容易引起读者注意的位置是句末，同样的道理，一段话中最容易引起读者注意的也是最后一句话，一篇文章中也是最后一段。
******
* GnuDoyng 注：句子的圆周性（periodicity）指的是句子一直到句末其语法才完备的性质，在句末之前，常常伴随着某些短语或从句的周期性重复。如哥林多前书第 13 章第 2 节（NRSV）：
And if I have prophetic powers, and understand all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have all faith, so as to remove mountains, but do not have love, I am nothing.
Showing posts with label 英语写作. Show all posts
Showing posts with label 英语写作. Show all posts
Friday, September 12, 2008
Friday, August 15, 2008
The Elements of Style 札记二（上）
II. Elementary Principle of Composition (a)
12. 构思合适的大纲并遵行之。
有效的写作必须紧紧跟随着作者的思路，但并不一定是按照作者思维的顺序，所以必须构思合适的大纲。文体大多都自由随意，但无论如何，它们都有一个骨架以填充血与肉。大纲愈清晰，成功的可能性就越大。
13. 让段落成为文章的单元。
一般来说，一个主题是可以分成几个要点的，每个要点用一个段落处理。除非作为过渡段落，否则一个单独的句子不应该独立成段。
每个段落的起首句要么应当点明本段主旨，要么应当作为承上启下的过渡句。作为一篇文章的一部分，某个段落同它之前段落的逻辑关系以及在全文中的地位需要明确给读者。有时，通过首句的一个单词或词组就够了（again、therefore、for the same reason）；而有时，通过一两句话缓慢地切入主题更好。
在叙事性或描述性文体中，段落常常以简洁扼要的语句起首。
The breeze served us admirably.
The campaign opened with a series of reverses.
The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries.
但无论是什么方法都不宜过多使用。更常见的情况是，起始句通过主题简明地指出段落情节发展的方向。
At length I thought I might return toward the stockade.
He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore.
Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof.
在生动的叙事性文体中，段落一般都很简短，并且完全不需要主题句。
太长的段落应当分成较小的若干段落，即使逻辑上没有必要，在视觉上也是有帮助的。而一连串太短的段落会分散读者的注意力。
14. 使用主动态。
主动态一般比被动态更直接，更有活力：
I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.
但有时候被动态也是必要的。
The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed today.
Modern readers have little esteemed for the dramatists of the Restoration.
一些死板的句子可以通过将“there is”或“could be heard”等官腔替换成主动态的方式变得具有活力：
There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground.
Dead leaves covered the ground.
--
At dawn the crowing of a rooster could be heard.
The cock's crow came with dawn.
--
The reason he left college was that his health became impaired.
Failing health compelled him to leave college.
--
It was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he said.
He soon repented her words.
当一个句子变得更有活力时，它通常变得更短更简洁了。
15. 以肯定的方式陈述事物。
用 not 来拒绝或者否定，而绝不要将它用作逃避的借口。读者总是希望被告知什么是什么，而非什么不是什么。
He was not very often on time.
He usually came late.
--
She did not think that studying Latin was much use.
She thought the study of Latin useless.
--
The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katharine as a very admirable character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works.
The women in The Taming of the Shrew are unattractive. Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca insignificant.
将互为反义的肯定词和否定词并列在一起会使句子的结构更为有力。
Not charity, but simple justice.
Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.
除了 not 以外的否定词语气往往强烈。
Her loveliness I never know / Until she smiled on me.
用不必要的助动词或者条件从句修饰的句子听起来犹豫不决。
If you would let us know the time of your arrival, we would be happy to arrange your transportation from the airport.
If you will let us know the time of your arrival, we shall be happy to arrange your transportation from the airport.
--
Applicants can make a good impression by being neat and punctual.
Applicants will make a good impression if they are neat and punctual.
--
Plath may be ranked among those modern poets who died young.
Plath was one of those modern poets who died young.
如果每句话都允许这样不必要的怀疑语气存在，你的文字将缺乏权威性。所以，请把 would、should、could、may、might 和 can 等助动词留到真正当你不确信的场合使用。
16. 使用明确、详细、具体的语言。
语言要详细而不是空泛，要明确而不是模糊，要具体而不是抽象。这样的语言勾勒出形象，引发真情实感，是吸引读者的最有效的方式。
A period of unfavorable weather set in.
It rained every day for a week.
--
He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned reward.
He grinned as he pocketed the coin.
… Daisy and I in time found asylum in a small menagerie down by the railroad tracks. It belonged to a gentle alcoholic ne'er-do-well, who did nothing all day long but drink bathtub gin in rickeys and play solitaire and smile to himself and talk to his animals. He had a little, stunted red vixen and a deodorized skunk, a parrot from Tahiti that spoke Parisian French, a woebegone coyote, and two capuchin monkeys, so serious and humanized, so small and sad and sweet, and so religious-looking with their tonsured heads that it was impossible not to think their gibberish was really an ordered language with a grammar that someday some philologist would understand.
Gran knew about our visits to Mr. Murphy and she did not object, for it gave her keen pleasure to excoriate him when we came home. His vice was not a matter of guesswork; it was an established fact that he was half-seas over from dawn till midnight. "With the black Irish," said Gran, "the taste for the drink is taken in with the mother’s milk and is never mastered. Oh, I know all about those promises to join the temperance movement and not to touch another drop. The way to Hell is paved with good intentions."
12. 构思合适的大纲并遵行之。
有效的写作必须紧紧跟随着作者的思路，但并不一定是按照作者思维的顺序，所以必须构思合适的大纲。文体大多都自由随意，但无论如何，它们都有一个骨架以填充血与肉。大纲愈清晰，成功的可能性就越大。
13. 让段落成为文章的单元。
一般来说，一个主题是可以分成几个要点的，每个要点用一个段落处理。除非作为过渡段落，否则一个单独的句子不应该独立成段。
每个段落的起首句要么应当点明本段主旨，要么应当作为承上启下的过渡句。作为一篇文章的一部分，某个段落同它之前段落的逻辑关系以及在全文中的地位需要明确给读者。有时，通过首句的一个单词或词组就够了（again、therefore、for the same reason）；而有时，通过一两句话缓慢地切入主题更好。
在叙事性或描述性文体中，段落常常以简洁扼要的语句起首。
The breeze served us admirably.
The campaign opened with a series of reverses.
The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of entries.
但无论是什么方法都不宜过多使用。更常见的情况是，起始句通过主题简明地指出段落情节发展的方向。
At length I thought I might return toward the stockade.
He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to explore.
Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the roof.
在生动的叙事性文体中，段落一般都很简短，并且完全不需要主题句。
太长的段落应当分成较小的若干段落，即使逻辑上没有必要，在视觉上也是有帮助的。而一连串太短的段落会分散读者的注意力。
14. 使用主动态。
主动态一般比被动态更直接，更有活力：
I shall always remember my first visit to Boston.
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by me.
但有时候被动态也是必要的。
The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed today.
Modern readers have little esteemed for the dramatists of the Restoration.
一些死板的句子可以通过将“there is”或“could be heard”等官腔替换成主动态的方式变得具有活力：
There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground.
Dead leaves covered the ground.
--
At dawn the crowing of a rooster could be heard.
The cock's crow came with dawn.
--
The reason he left college was that his health became impaired.
Failing health compelled him to leave college.
--
It was not long before he was very sorry that he had said what he said.
He soon repented her words.
当一个句子变得更有活力时，它通常变得更短更简洁了。
15. 以肯定的方式陈述事物。
用 not 来拒绝或者否定，而绝不要将它用作逃避的借口。读者总是希望被告知什么是什么，而非什么不是什么。
He was not very often on time.
He usually came late.
--
She did not think that studying Latin was much use.
She thought the study of Latin useless.
--
The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katharine as a very admirable character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works.
The women in The Taming of the Shrew are unattractive. Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca insignificant.
将互为反义的肯定词和否定词并列在一起会使句子的结构更为有力。
Not charity, but simple justice.
Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.
除了 not 以外的否定词语气往往强烈。
Her loveliness I never know / Until she smiled on me.
用不必要的助动词或者条件从句修饰的句子听起来犹豫不决。
If you would let us know the time of your arrival, we would be happy to arrange your transportation from the airport.
If you will let us know the time of your arrival, we shall be happy to arrange your transportation from the airport.
--
Applicants can make a good impression by being neat and punctual.
Applicants will make a good impression if they are neat and punctual.
--
Plath may be ranked among those modern poets who died young.
Plath was one of those modern poets who died young.
如果每句话都允许这样不必要的怀疑语气存在，你的文字将缺乏权威性。所以，请把 would、should、could、may、might 和 can 等助动词留到真正当你不确信的场合使用。
16. 使用明确、详细、具体的语言。
语言要详细而不是空泛，要明确而不是模糊，要具体而不是抽象。这样的语言勾勒出形象，引发真情实感，是吸引读者的最有效的方式。
A period of unfavorable weather set in.
It rained every day for a week.
--
He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned reward.
He grinned as he pocketed the coin.
… Daisy and I in time found asylum in a small menagerie down by the railroad tracks. It belonged to a gentle alcoholic ne'er-do-well, who did nothing all day long but drink bathtub gin in rickeys and play solitaire and smile to himself and talk to his animals. He had a little, stunted red vixen and a deodorized skunk, a parrot from Tahiti that spoke Parisian French, a woebegone coyote, and two capuchin monkeys, so serious and humanized, so small and sad and sweet, and so religious-looking with their tonsured heads that it was impossible not to think their gibberish was really an ordered language with a grammar that someday some philologist would understand.
Gran knew about our visits to Mr. Murphy and she did not object, for it gave her keen pleasure to excoriate him when we came home. His vice was not a matter of guesswork; it was an established fact that he was half-seas over from dawn till midnight. "With the black Irish," said Gran, "the taste for the drink is taken in with the mother’s milk and is never mastered. Oh, I know all about those promises to join the temperance movement and not to touch another drop. The way to Hell is paved with good intentions."
-- Jean Stafford, In the Zoo
明确、详细、具体的语言不是说要巨细无遗地记录每一个细节——而是要记录每一个重要的细节。伴随着想象，读者能够自己在脑海中勾画出形象来。
Herbert Spencer 在 Philosophy of Style 中举了一例说明一个模糊空泛的句子如何变得生动有力。
In proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulations of its penal code will be severe.
In proportion as men delight in battles, bullfights, and combats of gladiators, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack.
George Orwell 曾经从圣经中抽出一段，去除了其中的血液，以说明鲜活的文字是如何被剥夺生命力的。下面的两段文字，第一段是 Orwell 的翻译，第二段是钦定版圣经传道书中的原文。
Objective consideration of contemporary phenomena compels the conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity, but that a considerable element of the unpredictable must inevitably be taken into account.
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet favor to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all.
17. 删掉多余的词。
充满活力的文字是简洁的，作者必须保证，每一字每一词都言之有物。
出现在任何场合的“the fact that”都是华而不实的。
owing to the fact that --> since (because)
in spite of the fact that --> though (although)
call your attention to the fact that --> remind you (notify you)
I was unaware of the fact that --> I was unaware that (did not know)
the fact that he had not succeeded --> his failure
the fact that I had arrived --> my arrival
“Who is”、“which was”等等也是冗余的，应当直接用同位语代替。
主动态一般比被动态简洁，肯定式一般比否定式简洁，因此规则 14 和 15 中的例子事实上也佐证了这条规则。
冗余文字的一种常见的错误就是逐步地通过一系列句子表达某个单一复杂的概念。
Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become king of Scotland. The witches told him that this wish of his would come true. The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king. （51 个单词）
Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming king of Scotland in his place. （26 个单词）
明确、详细、具体的语言不是说要巨细无遗地记录每一个细节——而是要记录每一个重要的细节。伴随着想象，读者能够自己在脑海中勾画出形象来。
Herbert Spencer 在 Philosophy of Style 中举了一例说明一个模糊空泛的句子如何变得生动有力。
In proportion as the manners, customs, and amusements of a nation are cruel and barbarous, the regulations of its penal code will be severe.
In proportion as men delight in battles, bullfights, and combats of gladiators, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack.
George Orwell 曾经从圣经中抽出一段，去除了其中的血液，以说明鲜活的文字是如何被剥夺生命力的。下面的两段文字，第一段是 Orwell 的翻译，第二段是钦定版圣经传道书中的原文。
Objective consideration of contemporary phenomena compels the conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity, but that a considerable element of the unpredictable must inevitably be taken into account.
I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet favor to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all.
17. 删掉多余的词。
充满活力的文字是简洁的，作者必须保证，每一字每一词都言之有物。
出现在任何场合的“the fact that”都是华而不实的。
owing to the fact that --> since (because)
in spite of the fact that --> though (although)
call your attention to the fact that --> remind you (notify you)
I was unaware of the fact that --> I was unaware that (did not know)
the fact that he had not succeeded --> his failure
the fact that I had arrived --> my arrival
“Who is”、“which was”等等也是冗余的，应当直接用同位语代替。
主动态一般比被动态简洁，肯定式一般比否定式简洁，因此规则 14 和 15 中的例子事实上也佐证了这条规则。
冗余文字的一种常见的错误就是逐步地通过一系列句子表达某个单一复杂的概念。
Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to become king of Scotland. The witches told him that this wish of his would come true. The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan. Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to succeed Duncan as king. （51 个单词）
Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan and becoming king of Scotland in his place. （26 个单词）
Thursday, July 24, 2008
The Elements of Style 札记一
I. Elementary Rules of Usage
1. 单数名词所有格加上's。
不管单词末尾的辅音是什么。所以要写：Charles's friend。例外是一些古人的以 -es 或 -is 结尾的名字，和所有格 Jesus'，以及诸如 for conscience' sake、for righteousness' sake 等形式。不过，Moses' Laws 和 Isis' temple 通常替换为 the laws of Moses 和 the temple of Isis。
2. 在三项或三项以上的词语和一个连接词组成的序列中，每项词语后面都要加上逗号，除了最后一项。
如：red, white, and blue。
但在列举公司名称的场合中，最后一个逗号也常省略：Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette。
3. 用逗号将插入语隔开。
The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.
非限定性定语从句是插入语，而限定性定语从句不是，所以限定性定语从句不能用逗号隔开。区分下面两句：
In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France.
People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
4. 在引导独立从句的连接词前加上逗号。
The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
常见的连接词有 and、but、as（表因为）、for、or、nor 和 while（表同时）。注意，当两个从句的主语一致时，如果连接词是 but，那么就需要逗号，引导的从句的主语可省略。如果连接词是 and，且两个从句的关系紧密，逗号和引导从句的主语都可略去。
I have heard the news, but am still unconvinced.
He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent.
5. 不要仅用逗号连接独立从句。
要么用分号（第二句起首字母小写），要么用句号（第二句起首字母大写），要么用逗号配合连接词。
Mary Shelley's works are entertaining; they are full of engaging ideas.
Mary Shelley's works are entertaining, for they are full of engaging ideas.
而如果引导第二句的是诸如 accordingly、besides、then、therefore 或者 thus 之类的副词，依然需要分号。
I had never been in the place before; besides, it was dark as a tomb.
例外是，如果从句短小且结构上相似，或者句子的语气轻松且口语化的话，可以直接用逗号连接。
Man proposes, God disposes.
6. 不要把一个句子拆成两个。
就是不要在该用逗号的地方用句号，除非是需要强调：
Again and again he called out. No replay.
以上的3、4、5、6是标点符号使用中最重要的规则。
7. 在独立从句后用冒号引导一系列小品词，同位语，修饰语，或是阐述性的引用。
Your dedicated whittler requires three props: a knife, a piece of wood, and a back porch.
But even so, there was a directness and dispatch about animal burial: there was no stopover in the undertaker's foul parlor, no wreath or spray.
The squalor of the streets reminded her of a line from Oscar Wilde: "We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars."
冒号的其他用途包括添加在正式信件的致敬语后，以及分隔时间格式的时分秒、书的主副标题、以及圣经的章与节。
8. 用破折号引导一个突然的中断或插入以宣告一个长的同位语或总结文字。
His first thought on getting out of bed – if he had any thought at all – was to get back in again.
The increasing reluctance of the sun to rise, the extra nip in the breeze, the patter of shed leaves dropping – all the evidences of fall drifting into winter were clearer each day.
9. 主语的数决定了动词的数。
主语和动词之间的插入语不影响动词的数：
The bittersweet flavor of youth – its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges – is soon forgotten.
在“one of …”后面的定语从句动词的数取决于关系词的数：one of the ablest scientists who have attacked this problem。
None 后面一般用单数，除非指代许多人：None are fallible as those who are sure they're right.
一些在概念上不可分割的组合词通常使用单数的动词：
The long and the short of it is …
Bread and butter was all she served.
Give and take is essential to a happy household.
Every window, picture, and mirror was smashed.
一些名词在形式上是复数，但逻辑上是单数，动词也使用单数：
Politics is an art, not a science.
10. 正确使用代词的格。
Virgil Soames is the candidate who we think will win.
Virgil Soames is the candidate whom we hope to elect.
动名词通常需要所有格：
Mother objected to our driving on the icy roads.
而现在分词作为动词使用时需要宾格：
They heard him singing in the shower.
区分以下两句：
Do you mind me asking a question?
Do you mind my asking a question?
第一句的宾语是 me，第二句是 asking a question。
11. 句首的分词短语必须指代语法的主语。
也就是说千万不可以写：
Wondering irresolutely what to do next, the clock struck twelve.
1. 单数名词所有格加上's。
不管单词末尾的辅音是什么。所以要写：Charles's friend。例外是一些古人的以 -es 或 -is 结尾的名字，和所有格 Jesus'，以及诸如 for conscience' sake、for righteousness' sake 等形式。不过，Moses' Laws 和 Isis' temple 通常替换为 the laws of Moses 和 the temple of Isis。
2. 在三项或三项以上的词语和一个连接词组成的序列中，每项词语后面都要加上逗号，除了最后一项。
如：red, white, and blue。
但在列举公司名称的场合中，最后一个逗号也常省略：Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette。
3. 用逗号将插入语隔开。
The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.
非限定性定语从句是插入语，而限定性定语从句不是，所以限定性定语从句不能用逗号隔开。区分下面两句：
In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France.
People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
4. 在引导独立从句的连接词前加上逗号。
The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
常见的连接词有 and、but、as（表因为）、for、or、nor 和 while（表同时）。注意，当两个从句的主语一致时，如果连接词是 but，那么就需要逗号，引导的从句的主语可省略。如果连接词是 and，且两个从句的关系紧密，逗号和引导从句的主语都可略去。
I have heard the news, but am still unconvinced.
He has had several years' experience and is thoroughly competent.
5. 不要仅用逗号连接独立从句。
要么用分号（第二句起首字母小写），要么用句号（第二句起首字母大写），要么用逗号配合连接词。
Mary Shelley's works are entertaining; they are full of engaging ideas.
Mary Shelley's works are entertaining, for they are full of engaging ideas.
而如果引导第二句的是诸如 accordingly、besides、then、therefore 或者 thus 之类的副词，依然需要分号。
I had never been in the place before; besides, it was dark as a tomb.
例外是，如果从句短小且结构上相似，或者句子的语气轻松且口语化的话，可以直接用逗号连接。
Man proposes, God disposes.
6. 不要把一个句子拆成两个。
就是不要在该用逗号的地方用句号，除非是需要强调：
Again and again he called out. No replay.
以上的3、4、5、6是标点符号使用中最重要的规则。
7. 在独立从句后用冒号引导一系列小品词，同位语，修饰语，或是阐述性的引用。
Your dedicated whittler requires three props: a knife, a piece of wood, and a back porch.
But even so, there was a directness and dispatch about animal burial: there was no stopover in the undertaker's foul parlor, no wreath or spray.
The squalor of the streets reminded her of a line from Oscar Wilde: "We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars."
冒号的其他用途包括添加在正式信件的致敬语后，以及分隔时间格式的时分秒、书的主副标题、以及圣经的章与节。
8. 用破折号引导一个突然的中断或插入以宣告一个长的同位语或总结文字。
His first thought on getting out of bed – if he had any thought at all – was to get back in again.
The increasing reluctance of the sun to rise, the extra nip in the breeze, the patter of shed leaves dropping – all the evidences of fall drifting into winter were clearer each day.
9. 主语的数决定了动词的数。
主语和动词之间的插入语不影响动词的数：
The bittersweet flavor of youth – its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges – is soon forgotten.
在“one of …”后面的定语从句动词的数取决于关系词的数：one of the ablest scientists who have attacked this problem。
None 后面一般用单数，除非指代许多人：None are fallible as those who are sure they're right.
一些在概念上不可分割的组合词通常使用单数的动词：
The long and the short of it is …
Bread and butter was all she served.
Give and take is essential to a happy household.
Every window, picture, and mirror was smashed.
一些名词在形式上是复数，但逻辑上是单数，动词也使用单数：
Politics is an art, not a science.
10. 正确使用代词的格。
Virgil Soames is the candidate who we think will win.
Virgil Soames is the candidate whom we hope to elect.
动名词通常需要所有格：
Mother objected to our driving on the icy roads.
而现在分词作为动词使用时需要宾格：
They heard him singing in the shower.
区分以下两句：
Do you mind me asking a question?
Do you mind my asking a question?
第一句的宾语是 me，第二句是 asking a question。
11. 句首的分词短语必须指代语法的主语。
也就是说千万不可以写：
Wondering irresolutely what to do next, the clock struck twelve.
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